Basic English Grammar Lessons

Singular and Plural Nouns

A noun names a person, place, thing, or idea. Usually, the first page of a grammar book tells you about nouns. Nouns give namesof concrete or abstract things in our lives. As babies learn "mom," "dad," or "milk" as their first word, nouns should be the first topic when you study a foreignlanguage. For the plural form of most nouns, add s. bottle – bottles cup – cups pencil – pencils desk – desks sticker – stickers window – windows For nouns that end in ch, x, s, or s sounds, add es. box – boxes watch – watches moss – mosses bus – buses For nouns ending in f or fe, change f to v and add es. wolf – wolves wife – wives leaf – leaves life – lives Some nouns have different plural forms. child – children woman – women man – men mouse – mice goose – geese Nouns ending in vowels like y or o do not have definite rules. baby – babies toy – toys kidney – kidneys potato – potatoes memo – memos stereo – stereos A few nouns have the same singular and plural forms. sheep – sheep deer – deer series – series species – species [Quiz 1.1] Choose the correct form of the noun in each sentence. 1) I have three (child, children). 2) There are five (man, men) and one (woman, women). 3) (Baby, Babies) play with bottles as toys. 4) I put two big (potato, potatoes) in the lunch box. 5) A few men wear (watch, watches). 6) I put a (memo, memos) on the desk. 7) I saw a (mouse, mice) running by. 8) There are few (bus, buses) on the road today.

Count Nouns vs. Non-Count Nouns

Count nouns Can be counted as one or more. pen, computer, bottle, spoon, desk, cup, television, chair, shoe, finger, flower, camera, stick, balloon, book, table, comb, etc. Take an s to form the plural. pens, computers, bottles, spoons, desks, cups, televisions, chairs, shoes, fingers, flowers, cameras, sticks, balloons, books, tables, combs, etc. Work with expressions such as (a few, few, many, some, every, each, these, and the number of). a few pens, a few computers, many bottles, some spoons, every desk, each cup, these televisions, the number of chairs, a few shoes, a few fingers, many flowers, some cameras, every stick, each balloon, these books, the number of tables, many combs, etc. Work with appropriate articles (a, an, or the). a pen, the computer, a bottle, the spoon, a desk, the cup, a television, the chair, a shoe, the finger, a flower, the camera, a stick, the balloon, a book, the table, a comb, etc. Do NOT work with much (for example, you would never say much pens or much computers). Non-count nouns Cannot be counted. They usually express a group or a type. water, wood, ice, air, oxygen, English, Spanish, traffic, furniture, milk, wine, sugar, rice, meat, flour, soccer, sunshine, etc. Generally cannot be pluralized. Work both with and without an article (a, an, or the), depending on the context of the sentence. Sugar is sweet. The sunshine is beautiful. I drink milk. He eats rice. We watch soccer together. The wood is burning. Work with expressions such as (some, any, enough, this, that, and much). We ate some rice and milk. I hope to see some sunshine today. This meat is good. She does not speak much Spanish. Do you see any traffic on the road? That wine is very old. Nature is no man’s property.

Possessive Nouns

Possessive nouns are used to indicate ownership. Possessive nouns usually are formed by adding an apostrophe (') and s. John's book Kerry's car Grandma's mirror When a noun is plural and ends in s, just add an apostrophe ('). The kids' toys My parents' house The teachers' lounge If two people own one thing, add the apostrophe and s to the second person only. John and Mary's new house David and Sue's wedding Tom and Doug's car If two people own separate things, add the apostrophe and s for each person. Susan's and Beth's books Jean's and Dan's pants Ben's and Jim's offices [Quiz 3.1] Which of the following is not correct? 1) Dr. Hunts has a new computer. 2) Dr. Hunts's new computer is working well. 3) Dr. Hunts' computer is new.

Pronouns

A pronoun takes the place of a noun. Example story: Mary is one of the heads of the ToJi Corporation. Mary works with Mr. James and Mr. James' son Tom. Mr. James and Mr. James' son Tom are experts in biochemistry. Mary, Mr. James, and Tom researched and invented a drug for cancer treatment. If the story above is written using pronouns: Mary is one of the heads of the ToJi Corporation. She works with Mr. James and his son Tom. He and his son Tom are experts in biochemistry. They researched and invented a drug for cancer treatment.  Personal Pronouns Personal pronouns refer to a person: I go to school. You are a student. They are Koreans. He works here. We gave her food. The word ‘it' refers to an object: I drank it. It is big. They cut it into halves. Memorize the personal pronouns: First Second Third Male Female Neutral Singular Subject I you he she it Singular Object me you him her it Singular Reflexive myself yourself himself herself itself Plural Subject we you they Plural Object us you them Plural Reflexive ourselves yourselves themselves [Quiz 4.1] Write the correct pronoun in each blank. 1) I ate an apple.                     was delicious. 2) You look tired.                     should rest. 3) She is a teacher. I gave                    a book. 4) They are my friends. I like                     very much. 5) He saw the movie.                     was fun.

'Be' Verbs

A verb shows action or a state of being. I go home. Home is my place to rest. I like the smell of my house. I feel totally relaxed. Home refreshes me. At home, I get ready for a new day. "Be" verbs indicate a state of being. Verbs must match subjects. I am a doctor. He is sleepy. We are here. Negative sentences need ‘not' after the verb. I am not a doctor. He is not sleepy. We are not there. The verb comes first in interrogative sentences. Am I a doctor? Is he sleepy? Are we there? "Are not" (is not) can be shortened to "aren't" (isn't). He isn't sleepy. We aren't there. Remember the variations of "be" verbs: Present Negative Interrogative I am I am not Am I? You are You are not (aren't) Are you? He is He is not (isn't) Is he? She is She is not (isn't) Is she? It is It is not (isn't) Isn't it? We are We are not (aren't) Are we? You are You are not (aren't) Are you? They are They are not (aren't) Are they? [Quiz 5.1] Which of the following sentences are written correctly? 1) I am thirsty. 2) You are kind. 3) He am not sad. 4) She are not tall. 5) It is not moving. 6) We aren't tired. 7) Is they running? 8) Are you ready?

Action Verbs

Action verbs express action and are the most common verbs. Action verbs need s at the end with third-person, singular subjects. He eats bread. She walks to the station. It floats on the sea. Negative sentences need do not, does not, or did not. I do not eat bread. He does not eat bread. You did not walk to the station. It does not float on the sea. Interrogative sentences begin with do, does, or did. Do you eat bread? Does he eat bread? Does she walk to the station? Did they finish it? Do not can be shortened to don't, does not to doesn't, and did not to didn't. I don't eat bread. She doesn't walk to the station. It doesn't float on the sea. They didn't finish it. Remember the variations of action verbs: Affirmative Sentence Negative Sentence Interrogative Sentence I sing a song. I do not (don't) sing a song. Do I sing a song? You sing a song. You do not (don't) sing a song. Do you sing a song? He (she) sings a song. He (she) does not (doesn't) sing a song. Does he (she) sing a song? We sing a song. We do not (don't) sing a song. Do we sing a song? They sang a song. They did not (didn't) sing a song. Did they sing a song? [Quiz 6.1] Correct the verb errors in the sentences below. Some sentences may be correct as is. 1) I runs a marathon. 2) You look sleepy. 3) She do not dance. 4) Does you leave today? 5) We don't stay here. 6) It come with rice.

Adjectives

Adjectives describe or modify nouns. I like fairy tales. A fairy tale is an imaginary story that has unrealistic characters in a fantastic background. It makes me forget about the real world and refreshes my tired mind. Adjectives generally appear immediately before the noun. A pretty girl Red flowers A long stick Heavy boxes Warm weather Commonly, adjectives of opposite meaning are formed by adding a prefix such as -un, -in, -ir, -il or dis. clear – unclear, important – unimportant, predictable – unpredictable, believable – unbelievable, common – uncommon, aware – unaware, ambiguous – unambiguous, conventional – unconventional, certain – uncertain definite – indefinite, correct – incorrect, comparable – incomparable, complete – incomplete, evitable – inevitable, expensive – inexpensive regular—irregular, relevant—irrelevant, responsible—irresponsible, respective—irrespective, rational—irrational, reparable—irreparable. legal—illegal, literate—illiterate, logical-- illogical   able – disable, assemble – disassemble, content – discontent, similar – dissimilar When using a string of adjectives, they should appear in a set order: size/shape + age + color + origin + material. (SACOM) A big brown house A small old English desk A beautiful black Italian leather purse Delicious Chinese food The + adjective describes a class or group of people and acts as a noun. the old, the young, the poor, the rich, the oppressed, the homeless, etc. This popular TV show is loved by the old. [Quiz 7.1] Write opposite adjectives using the appropriate prefix. 1) Clear – unclear                  2) Definite – indefinite 3) Correct – incorrect 4) Expensive – inexpensive 5) Complete – incomplete [Quiz 7.2] Underline all adjectives in the following sentences. In the spring, red roses blossom in my cute small garden. The beautiful birds also sing in the big oak tree.

Comparative and Superlative Adjectives

Comparative adjectives compare two things. Superlative adjectives compare more than two things Commonly, adjectives that contain only one syllable or end in 'y' use 'er' to form comparatives and 'est' to form superlatives. For adjectives ending in y, change the 'y' to 'i' before adding the 'er' or 'est'. old – older – oldest young – younger – youngest pretty – prettier – prettiest long – longer – longest short – shorter – shortest bright – brighter – brightest close – closer – closest happy – happier - happiest Adjectives with two or more syllables do not change but instead add more to form comparatives and most to form superlatives. respectable – more respectable – most respectable beautiful – more beautiful – most beautiful preferable – more preferable – most preferable hardworking – more hardworking – most hardworking Some adjectives have different forms of comparatives and superlatives. good – better – best bad – worse – worst little – less – least much (many) – more – most far – further – furthest          farther -- farthest The word than typically appears in comparative sentences. Amy is smarter than Betty. Chad is stronger than Dan. Greg is more diligent than his brother. I have more apples than he. She likes him more than me. Superlatives are typically accompanied by the word the. Tom is the oldest man in town. Paul is the tallest boy in the neighbourhood. That shade of blue is the most beautiful color. This is the longest song that I have ever heard. [Quiz 8.1] Write the appropriate comparative or superlative form of the word cold in each blank. Yesterday was a cold day. Today is colder than than yesterday. Tomorrow will be the coldest day yet. [Quiz 8.2] Which of the following sentences is incorrect? 1) Mary is shorter than Jane. 2) The moon is more closer to the earth than the sun. 3) I have the best score on the exam. [Quiz 8.3] Fill in the blanks. 1) My friend has a pretty purse, but I have a prettier one. 2) The warmest weather is yet to come! 3) Today's sunshine is more beautiful than yesterday's.

Adverbs

Adverbs modify a verb, an adjective, or another adverb. An adverb tells more about a verb in the sentence. The fire engine runs fast. Listen to his speech carefully. I browse the web frequently. It rained hard. An adverb describes more about an adjective in the sentence. The news is very surprising! The coffee is extremely hot, so be careful. Nature is really amazing! An adverb modifies another adverb in the sentence. It rains very hard. Computers run much faster these days. I clean my room less frequently because I am busy. Commonly, adjectives can be changed to adverbs by adding 'ly'. slow – slowly quick – quickly comfortable – comfortably loud – loudly clear – clearly To change adjectives ending in 'y' into adverbs, change the 'y' to 'i' and add 'ly'. happy – happily easy – easily [Quiz 9.1] Choose the correct word form in the following sentences. 1) I spoke to you (careful, carefully) last time. 2) We talked about it (clear, clearly). 3) I sat on the (comfortable, comfortably) sofa. 4) My dog runs very (fast, faster). 5) Let’s install the new program (quick, quickly).

Simple Tense

Verb tense tells you when the action happens. There are three main verb tenses: present, past, and future. Each main tense is divided into simple, progressive, perfect, and perfect progressive tenses. Present Past Future Simple finish finished will finish Progressive am/is/are finishing was/were finishing will be finishing Perfect have/has finished had finished will have finished Perfect Progressive have/has been finishing had been finishing will have been finishing Things to remember about simple tense:      a. Present tense is the original verb form.      b. Past tense has a few patterns.      c. Future tense needs will (shall) + verb. run I run a marathon twice a year. (present) I ran a marathon last year. (past) I will run a marathon next year. (future) eat I eat lunch in my office. I ate lunch an hour ago. I will eat lunch in one hour. see I see a movie once a week. I saw a movie yesterday. I will see a movie tomorrow. know I know it. I knew it the day before yesterday. I will know it by tomorrow. learn I learn English. I learned English the last two years. I will learn English next year. cook I cook my supper every night. I cooked our dinner already. I will cook breakfast tomorrow. [Quiz 10.1] Fill in the blanks with appropriate verb forms. 1) I                      a song at the concert yesterday. 2) He                      a letter to his girlfriend tomorrow. 3) I                      to the library to borrow some books this weekend.

Progressive and Perfect Tense

Progressive Tense The progressive tense involves action that is, was, or will be in progress at a certain time. In the progressive tense, verbs are formed with a "be" verb + ing. run I am running a marathon right now. (present progressive) I was running a marathon at this time last year. (past progressive) I will be running a marathon next Sunday. (future progressive) eat I am eating lunch now. I was eating lunch when you saw me. I will be eating lunch in the meeting. learn I am learning English at my desk. I was learning English the last two years. I will be learning English then. cook I am cooking my supper now. I was cooking our dinner when you called me. I will be cooking breakfast by the time you come home. Perfect Tense The present perfect tense describes an action that started in the past and continues to the present time. Use has/have + the past participle form of the verb. The past perfect tense describes an action that started and ended in the past. Use had + the past participle form of the verb. The future perfect tense describes future actions that will occur before some other action. Use will have + the past participle form of the verb. run I have run several marathons this year. (present perfect) I had run many marathons in the past. (past perfect) I will have run a marathon by the time I turn 30. (future perfect) learn I have learned a lot about English grammar this semester. I had learned the basics of English grammar in elementary school. I will have learned a lot about English grammar when I finish college. know I have known her since I was young. I had known her until she passed away. I will have known her for 20 years next month. cook I have cooked supper every night this week. I had cooked supper every night until the stove broke. I will have cooked supper every night by the time this diet ends. [Quiz 11.1] Using the following sentence and create three more sentences using the present, past, and future progressive tenses. I sing a song on the big stage. [Quiz 11.2] Fill in the blanks with the correct form of the verb given. 1) He                      (exercise) hard since last year. 2) I                      (study) math as my major since high school.

Irregular Verbs

Regular verbs form their past and past participle by adding ed (d). Base Verb Past Past Participle learn learned learned study studied studied cook cooked cooked solve solved solved ask asked asked watch watched watched listen listened listened Irregular verbs do not have definite rules, but there are a few patterns. Base Verb Past Past Participle grow grew grown know knew known begin began begun draw drew drawn drive drove driven fly flew flown give gave given speak spoke spoken swim swam swum go went gone take took taken find found found spend spent spent teach taught taught pay paid paid feel felt felt buy bought bought meet met met have had had feed fed fed keep kept kept cut cut cut hit hit hit set set set shut shut shut fit fit fit [Quiz 13.1] Find the past and past participle forms of the following verbs using your dictionary: bring-brought-brought drink-drank-drunk think-thought-thought tell-told-told eat-ate-eaten make-made-made beat-beat-beaten

Gerunds

A gerund (verb + ing) acts like a noun in a sentence. Seeing is believing. Running a marathon is not an easy thing to do. Watching TV is sometimes harmful. Eating is always fun. My hobby is painting. She loves babysitting her sister. I like listening to music. I wasted all my afternoon by taking a nap. I am afraid of singing a song on a stage. Often, a possessive noun or pronoun comes before a gerund. I hope that you don’t mind my using your pen. Don’t be mad about my leaving early. I don’t want you misunderstanding. You will be amazed by my writing. [Quiz 14.1] Fill in the blanks. 1) I enjoy                      (draw) as a hobby. 2) She likes                      (buy) clothes. 3) Children are fond of                      (play) with water. 4)                     (dance) is my favorite thing to do. 5) I am upset at his                      (break) the rule.

Infinitives Part 1

An infinitive is a verb combined with the word to. Most often, an infinitive acts as a noun in the sentence. Less frequently, it acts as an adjective or an adverb. I want to go home early today. I hope to be chosen as a member.(passive) I prefer to go there earlier. You need to consider various rules in writing sentences. You have to explain your reasoning in detail. You might wish to act as a teacher. To leave for a vacation is my only wish at this time. A common mistake in a relationship is not to trust the other person. Help me to save the trees! To be mentally healthy, you must read books. Do you want me to fill out this form? Here is our to-do list. It was nice to meet you. It is time to move on. I am young enough to change my habits. Don’t forget not to make grammar mistakes. You are required to leave all your belongings here. I came to see a doctor today. You have to work harder to succeed. I need to take three more classes to finish my graduate study. I got closer to the speaker to listen clearly. Be sure to check if you have tickets. I am going to buy the new computer. Generally, it is not common to split to and the verb except for when you want to emphasize the verb.  I want you to immediately stop doing that. You have to seriously work hard to succeed. You need to definitely explain your reasoning in detail. [Quiz 15.1] Fill in the blanks. 1) I am going                      (learn) English. 2) It is common                      (make) a grammar mistake. 3) Did you come                     (clean) my house?

Infinitives Part 2

Commonly, an infinitive is used with the subject it. The sentence structure is "It is                     + infinitive.…" It refers to the infinitive. This expression is used in many ways.  It is time to do math. It is common to think that way. It is appropriate to keep a low profile. It was nice to see you. It was my pleasure to meet you. It was my honor to have dinner with you. It is good to see you. It was great to go on a trip with them. Both gerunds and infinitive phrases can function as nouns, in a variety of ways. Gerunds and infinitives can follow certain verbs but not others. You need to remember which verbs can be followed by only a gerund or only an infinitive. Verbs that can precede only gerunds: consider, suggest, enjoy, deny, avoid, miss, mind, practice, postpone, resist, finish, quit, give up, put off Verbs that can precede only infinitives: offer, decide, hope, attempt, promise, agree, afford, deserve, refuse, undertake, learn, fail, seem, appear, tend, pretend, choose, demand, desire, guarantee, claim, manage, determine, expect, want, wish Verbs that can precede either gerunds or infinitives without changing meanings:  continue, like, love, begin, start, propose, neglect, stand, hate Verbs that can precede either gerunds or infinitives but change meanings:  forget, remember, stop, try  I stopped watching the movie. (I no longer watched the movie.) I stopped to watch the movie. (I stopped what I was doing to watch the movie.) [Quiz 16.1] Fill in the blanks. 1) I decided                      (leave) the job. 2) She pretended                      (know) me. 3) He desires                      (be) a professor. 4) The company considered                     (sell) its main building. 5) I expect                      (win) at this game. 6) Do you enjoy                      (take) care of your pet? 7) She hopes                      (go) on a vacation. 8) Did you fail                      (pass) the exam? 9) They want me                      (take) this position. 10) It is great                     (hear) that they agreed                      (share) the land.

Active Voice and Passive Voice

Verbs are either active or passive in voice. In the active voice, the subject and verb relationship is straightforward: the subject is a do-er. In the passive voice, the subject of the sentence is not a do-er. It is shown with by + do-er or is not shown in the sentence. Passive voice is used when the action is the focus, not the subject. It is not important (or not known) who does the action.  The window is broken. (It is not known who broke the window, or it is not important to know who broke the window.) The class has been cancelled. (The focus is on the class being cancelled. It is not important to know who cancelled it.) The passive voice is often used. (The focus is on the passive voice. It is not important to explain who the writer is.) Passive voice should be avoided when you want more clarity in writing. However, in some cases, you need to use passive voice to stress the action, not the actor. Also, passive voice can be considered more polite, as it sounds less aggressive or dramatic.  That building was built in 1990. The car was invented about a hundred years ago. I was told that Mary moved to a different country. Your business is appreciated. She was elected to city council. It was rumored that the company would lay off a few people soon. It is recommended that the billing process be shortened. You can easily rewrite an active sentence to a passive sentence. The object in the active sentence becomes a subject in the passive sentence. The verb is changed to a “be” verb + past participle. The subject of the active sentence follows by or is omitted.  Sam wrote a letter to Jamie. A letter was written to Jamie by Sam. The government built a new bridge. A new bridge was built by the government. I recommend that you apply for this position. It is recommended that you apply for this position. [Quiz 17.1] Rewrite the following sentence in passive voice. John gave me a bunch of flowers on my birthday. I was given a bunch of flowers on my birthday. [Quiz 17.2] Choose the sentences written incorrectly in the passive voice. 1) I was eaten an ice cream. 2) The song was sung by a singer. 3) I was deceived by the TV program. 4) The concert was finished at 12 p.m. 5) He was written a novel. 6) The tennis match was aired on TV. 7) He was treated kindly. 8) I have been managed a company since 2004.

Mood for Grammar

A mood shows the writer’s attitude toward what he/she is saying. Indicative Mood states an actuality or fact. We will go to see a movie this Sunday. I’ll follow you. Imperative Mood makes a request. Let’s go to see a movie this weekend! Please stop bugging me! Subjunctive Mood expresses a doubtful condition (contrary to fact) and is often used with an "if" clause. If I were you, I wouldn’t buy a house. I wish I were more organized. The following verbs often attract the subjunctive mood: ask, recommend, suggest, wish, insist, order, commend, request, and demand. A verb in the subjunctive mood may have a different form. The subjunctive for the present tense third-person singular drops the s or es so that it looks and sounds like the present tense for everything else. In the subjunctive mood, the verb to be is be in the present tense and were in the past tense, regardless of what the subject is. Incorrect: If I was you, I would take any offer. Correct: If I were you, I would take any offer. (The verb follows ‘if’ and expresses a non-factual condition.) Incorrect: I wish I was able to speak English fluently. Correct: I wish I were able to speak English fluently. (The second verb is in a clause following a verb expressing a wish. It suggests a non-factual or doubtful condition.) Incorrect: Our suggestion is that everyone on the team does the survey. Correct: Our suggestion is that everyone on the team do the survey. Incorrect: She recommended that each student takes a note. Correct: She recommended that each student take a note. [Quiz 18.1] Write the correct form of the verb given. 1) I insist that Jennifer                      (finish) her meal. 2) She suggests that the office                     (be) closed today. 3) If I                      (be) you, I would win the game. 4) I wish I                      (can) fly. [Quiz 18.2] Choose the correct sentence from the following. 1) I wish I was able to buy this car. 2) It were recommended that the company closes its foreign offices. 3) If Jack were 17 years old, he would apply for the university. 4) Our manager insists that the group is reorganized.

Auxiliary Verbs "Be," "Do," "Have"

An auxiliary verb helps the main (full) verb and is also called a "helping verb." With auxiliary verbs, you can write sentences in different tenses, moods, or voices. Auxiliary verbs are: be, do, have, will, shall, would, should, can, could, may, might, must, ought, etc.  I think I should study harder to master English. I am having a cup of coffee. You have been practicing hard. It was written by a petitioner. You may choose what you like. The verb forms of be, do, and have can be used either as a main (full) verb or an auxiliary verb. The following examples show these verbs used as auxiliary verbs. 1. "Be" as an auxiliary verb a. Used in progressive sentences: I am taking a bath. She is preparing dinner for us. They have been studying all night. b. Used in passive sentences: I was given a free meal. He was seen by fans at the airport. This song has been sung by all nations. 2."Do" as an auxiliary verb a. Used in negative sentences: I do not know the truth. She doesn’t agree with me. They didn’t arrive here yet. b. Used in questions: Do you want to have another one? Did he finish his homework? Do we need to keep going straight? 3."Have" as an auxiliary verb a. Used in perfect sentences: I have been following you for a mile. We have done a lot so far. She had been queen of the town. [Quiz 19.1] Identify all auxiliary verbs in the following paragraph. I have just heard that you didn’t attend the meeting yesterday. Did you have a conflict with that time? I must ask that you explain the reason. [Quiz 19.2] Which of the following sentences does not show any auxiliary verbs? 1) I didn’t have any reason to go there. 2) Have we practiced this song enough? 3) Three seats have been reserved for us. 4) I am a professor in the economics department.

Auxiliary Verbs "Will/Would" and "Shall/Should"

The verbs will, would, shall, should, can, could, may, might, and must cannot be the main (full) verbs alone. They are used as auxiliary verbs only and always need a main verb to follow.  Will Used to express desire, preference, choice, or consent: I will take this duty. Will you stop talking like that? Used to express the future: It will rain tomorrow. The news will spread soon. Used to express capacity or capability: This bucket will hold two gallons of water. This airplane will take 200 passengers. Used to express determination, insistence, or persistence: I will do it as you say. Would (past form of will) Often used in auxiliary functions with rather to express preference: I would rather go shopping today. We’d rather say something than stay quiet. Used to express a wish or desire: I would like to have one more pencil. Used to express contingency or possibility: If I were you, I would be so happy. Used to express routine or habitual things: Normally, we would work until 6 p.m. Shall Mainly used in American English to ask questions politely (it has more usages in British English). For the future tense, will is more frequently used in American English than shall. Shall we dance? Shall I go now? Let’s drink, shall we? Often used in formal settings to deliver obligation or requirement: You shall abide by the law. There shall be no trespassing on this property. Students shall not enter this room. Should (past form of shall) Often used in auxiliary functions to express an opinion, suggestion, preference, or idea: You should rest at home today. I should take a bus this time. He should be more thoughtful in the decision-making process. Used to express that you wish something had happened but it didn’t or couldn’t (should + have + past participle): You should have seen it. It was really beautiful. I should have completed it earlier to meet the deadline. We should have visited the place on the way. Used to ask for someone’s opinion:  What should we do now? Should we continue our meeting? Should we go this way? Where should we go this summer? Used to say something expected or correct: There should be an old city hall building here. Everybody should arrive by 6 p.m. We should be there this evening. [Quiz 20.1] Fill in the blanks using an appropriate auxiliary verb. 1) I                     leave now. It is too late. 2) You                     have seen him. His dance was amazing. 3)                    we have lunch together? 4) I                     like a cup of tea, please. 5)                    we read the email?

Auxiliary Verbs "Can/Could" and "May/Might/Must"

Can Used to express ability (to be able to do something): I can make jewellery. He can’t speak French. Can you open this jar? Used to ask for permission: Can I use your bathroom? Can I leave now? Can I raise the volume? Used to make requests or suggestions: Can I have more napkins? Can I have the bill? You can take this spot if you like. You can do whatever you want. Could (past form of can) Describes an ability that someone had in the past: I could swim when I was young. You could see the boat sinking. They could tell he was nervous. Often used in auxiliary functions to express permission politely: Could I take this jacket with me? You could borrow my umbrella. Could you please let me pass you? Could I get you more water? Used to express possibility: All of them could ride in the van. You could always stay at our house. Could it be true? This plan could really work out. May Used to ask for formal permission: May I come in? May I say something now? May I ask one question? Used to suggest something that is possible: She may agree with this plan. They may not be happy about what happened. It may shower tonight. Might (past form of may) Used to suggest a smaller possibility than may does (actually, might is more common than may in American English): He might have finished it. I might go see a doctor. I might not come this time. It might be right. You might have lost it. The store might have been closed today. Must Used to express something formally required or necessary: I must complete the project by this week. The government must provide health care for everybody. Everyone must save the natural resources of the earth. The building must have a fire alarm. You must answer my question right now. Used to show that something is very likely: He must be a genius. You must be joking! There must be an accident. She must be very tired. [Quiz 21.1] Choose the right word for each blank. 1) She                      (can, could, may, might, must) have practiced a lot. Her performance was amazing. 2) I can’t find my watch anywhere. I                      (can, could, may, might, must) have lost it. 3) Professor,                      (can, could, may, might, must) I ask a question? 4)                     (can, could, may, might, must) you please lower your voice? 5) You                      (can, could, may, might, must) be kidding! How is that possible? 6) I                      (can, could, may, might, must) speak both English and Chinese fluently.

Prepositions "On," "At," and "In"

A preposition is a word that links a noun, pronoun, or noun phrase to some other part of the sentence. Prepositions can be tricky for English learners. There is no definite rule or formula for choosing a preposition. In the beginning stage of learning the language, you should try to identify a preposition when reading or listening in English and recognize its usage.  to the office at the desk on the table in an hour about myself A preposition is used to show direction, location, or time, or to introduce an object. Here are a few common prepositions and examples. On Used to express a surface of something: I put an egg on the kitchen table. The paper is on my desk. Used to specify days and dates: The garbage truck comes on Wednesdays. I was born on the 14th day of June in 1988. Used to indicate a device or machine, such as a phone or computer: He is on the phone right now. She has been on the computer since this morning. My favorite movie will be on TV tonight. Used to indicate a part of the body: The stick hit me on my shoulder. He kissed me on my cheek. I wear a ring on my finger. Used to indicate the state of something: Everything in this store is on sale. The building is on fire. Used to indicate a method or manner:             We came on a bike/on foot. At Used to point out specific time: I will meet you at 12 p.m. The bus will stop here at 5:45 p.m. Used to indicate a place: There is a party at the club house. There were hundreds of people at the park. We saw a baseball game at the stadium. Used to indicate an email address: Please email me at abc@defg.com. Used to indicate an activity: He laughed at my acting. I am good at drawing a portrait. In Used for unspecific times during a day, month, season, year: She always reads newspapers in the morning. In the summer, we have a rainy season for three weeks. The new semester will start in March. Used to indicate a location or place: She looked me directly in the eyes. I am currently staying in a hotel. My hometown is Los Angeles, which is in California. Used to indicate a shape, color, or size: This painting is mostly in blue. The students stood in a circle. This jacket comes in four different sizes. Used to express while doing something: In preparing for the final report, we revised the tone three times. A catch phrase needs to be impressive in marketing a product. Used to indicate a belief, opinion, interest, or feeling: I believe in the next life. We are not interested in gambling. [Quiz 22.1] Identify all prepositions in the following sentences. After flying for many hours, we finally got off the airplane. We walked out the exit and went to the baggage claim area. There were hundreds of different bags on the conveyer belt. I almost picked up the wrong one because it looked like mine. [Quiz 22.2] Choose a correct preposition in the sentence. 1) I want to lose 5 kilogram                      (on, at, in) one month. 2) Could you get me this pants                      (on, at, in) a larger size? 3) She seems to be interested                      (on, at, in) Psychology. 4) I will come to pick you up                      (on, at, in) 2 pm tomorrow. 5) This class will be held                      (on, at, in) Mondays.

Prepositions "Of," "To," and "For"

Of Used for belonging to, relating to, or connected with: The secret of this game is that you can’t ever win. The highlight of the show is at the end. The first page of the book describes the author’s profile. Don’t touch it. That’s the bag of my friend’s sister. I always dreamed of being rich and famous. Used to indicate reference: I got married in the summer of 2000. This is a picture of my family. I got a discount of 10 percent on the purchase. Used to indicate an amount or number: I drank three cups of milk. A large number of people gathered to protest. I had only four hours of sleep during the last two days. He got a perfect score of 5 on his writing assignment. To Used to indicate the place, person, or thing that someone or something moves toward, or the direction of something: I am heading to the entrance of the building. The package was mailed to Mr. Kim yesterday. All of us went to the movie theatre. Please send it back to me. Used to indicate a limit or an ending point: The snow was piled up to the roof. The stock prices rose up to 100 dollars. Used to indicate relationship: This letter is very important to your admission. My answer to your question is in this envelop. Do not respond to every little thing in your life. Used to indicate a time or a period: I work nine to six, Monday to Friday. It is now 10 to five. (In other words, it is 4:50.) For Used to indicate the use of something: This place is for exhibitions and shows. I baked a cake for your birthday. I put a note on the door for privacy. She has been studying hard for the final exam. Used to mean because of: I am so happy for you. We feel deeply sorry for your loss. For this reason, I’ve decided to quit this job. Used to indicate time or duration: He’s been famous for many decades. I attended the university for one year only. This is all I have for today. [Quiz 23.1] Choose the correct preposition in each sentence. 1) I slept                      (of, to, for) only two hours last night. 2) It was my first trip                      (of, to, for) Hawaii. 3) Turn off the TV and go straight                      (of, to, for) bed. 4) This book was written                      (of, to, for) the people who want to learn how to play a guitar. 5) I was late                      (of, to, for) school. 6) Spencer is one                      (of, to, for) my best friends.

Prepositions "With," "Over," and "By"

With Used to indicate being together or being involved: I ordered a sandwich with a drink. He was with his friend when he saw me. She has been working with her sister at the nail shop. The manager will be with you shortly. Used to indicate "having": I met a guy with green eyes. Were you the one talking with an accent? People with a lot of money are not always happy. Used to indicate "using": I wrote a letter with the pen you gave me. This is the soup that I made with rice and barley. He cut my hair with his gold scissors. Used to indicate feeling: I am emailing you with my sincere apology. He came to the front stage with confidence. Used to indicate agreement or understanding: Are you with me? Yes, I am completely with you. She agrees with me. Over Used to indicate movement from one place to another: Come over to my house for dinner sometime. Could you roll over? They sent over a gift for his promotion. Used to indicate movement downward: The big tree fell over on the road. Can you bend over and get the dish for me? He pushed it over the edge. Used to indicate more than an expected number or amount: This amount is over our prediction. Kids twelve and over can watch this movie. The phone rang for over a minute. Used to indicate a period of time: I worked there over a year. She did not sleep there over this past month. By Used to indicate proximity: Can I sit by you? He was standing by me. The post office is by the bank. Used to indicate the person that does something in a passive voice sentence: The microwave was fixed by the mechanic. The flowers were delivered by a postman. The branch office was closed by the head office. Used to indicate an action with a particular purpose: You can pass the exam by preparing for it. I expressed my feeling toward her by writing a letter. She finally broke the record by pure effort. Used to indicate a mean or method: Please send this package to Russia by airmail. I came here by subway. They go to office by walk. [Quiz 24.1] Choose the correct preposition in each sentence. 1) If she left at 4 p.m., she should be here                      (with, over, by) now. 2) Go                      (with, over, by) there and catch my ball. 3)                     (With, Over, By) your determination, you will be able to achieve your dream. 4) I just found it! It was                      (with, over, by) the radio on my desk. 5) I knocked him                      (with, over, by) accidentally. 6) She was                      (with, over, by) me when the accident occurred.

Coordinating Conjunctions and Correlative Conjunctions

A conjunction joins words or groups of words in a sentence. I ate lunch with Kate and Derma. Because it is rainy today, the trip is cancelled. She didn’t press the bell, but I did. There are three types of conjunctions: 1.Coordinating Conjunctions      a. Connect words, phrases, or clauses that are independent or equal      b. and, but, or, so, for, yet, and not 2.Correlative Conjunctions      a. Used in pairs      b. both/and, either/or, neither/nor, not only/but also 3.Subordinating Conjunctions      a. Used at the beginning of subordinate clauses      b. although, after, before, because, how, if, once, since, so that, until, unless, when, while, where, whether, etc.  Coordinating Conjunctions 1.And—means "in addition to": We are going to a zoo and an aquarium on the same day. 2.But—connects two different things that are not in agreement: I am a night owl, but she is an early bird. 3.Or—indicates a choice between two things: Do you want a red one or a blue one? 4.So—illustrates a result of the first thing: This song has been very popular, so I downloaded it. 5.For—means "because": I want to go there again, for it was a wonderful trip. 6.Yet—indicates contrast with something: He performed very well, yet he didn’t make the final cut. Correlative Conjunctions 1.Both/and She won gold medals from both the single and group races. Both TV and television are correct words. 2.Either/or I am fine with either Monday or Wednesday. You can have either apples or pears. 3.Neither/nor He enjoys neither drinking nor gambling. Neither you nor I will get off early today. 4.Not only/but also Not only red but also green looks good on you. She got the perfect score in not only English but also math. [Quiz 25.1] Write the correct conjunction in each sentence. 1)                     my friend                      I are taking the geography class. 2) Do you want to go swimming                      golfing? 3) I studied grammar for a long time,                      I still make mistakes. 4)                     wood                      bricks can be used as homebuilding materials. 5) I wasn’t feeling well this morning,                      I had to go to work.

Subordinating Conjunctions

Subordinating Conjunctions 1.Although—means "in spite of the fact that": Although it was raining, I ran home. She showed up, although she felt sick. Although my mom told me to come home early, I stayed out late. 2.After—indicates "subsequently to the time when": Please text me after you arrive at the shopping mall. We were forced to stop watching TV after the electricity went out. I always tell my daughter that she can have dessert after she eats her dinner. 3.Before—indicates "earlier than the time that": He had written a living will before he died. Before he contacted me, I was going to call him. I need to finish the dishes before my wife gets home. 4.Because—means "for the reason that": Because he was smart and worked hard, he was able to make a lot of money. They stopped building the house because it was pouring. I love dogs because they are so cute. 5.How—means "the way in which": I wonder how you did it. He explained how he completed it in a few days. Can you show me how you fixed the computer? 6.If—means "in the event that": If it is sunny tomorrow, we can go to the beach. If I receive a promotion, you will be the first to know. You can watch TV if you finish your homework. 7.Once—indicates "at the moment when": Once you see him, you will recognize him. Once the light came on, we all shouted with joy. Call me once you start having contractions. 8.Since—means "from the time when": I’ve been a singer since I was young. Since he graduated, he has been doing nothing. This building has been remodelled three times since I lived here. 9.So that—means "in order to": So that she could keep her position, she didn’t complain at all. He finished his work as fast as possible so that he could leave early. He worked harder for a raise so he could buy a nice car. 10.Until—means "up to the time that": Don’t go anywhere until I come back. She didn’t realize her talent in painting until her teacher mentioned it. They won’t allow us to sit until everyone arrives. 11.Unless—means "except, on the condition": You will not pass the exam unless you get a score of 80 or higher. I will not tell you anything unless you tell me what you know first. Unless you ask her, you will never know. 12.When—means "at that time": When I came in the room, everyone looked at me. I woke up when my baby was crying. I started looking for a gas station when my gas light went on. 13.While—means "during the time": Someone called you while you were at the meeting. We met while we were working at the University. My dog started barking while I was talking on the phone. 14.Where—indicates "in the place": This is where I came from. Please tell me where you are going. I need to know where John hid the present. 15.Whether—means "if it is true or not": We will have a picnic whether (if) it rains or not. It is time to decide whether (if) we should take action. You need to decide whether (if) or not you are hungry. [Quiz 26.1] Fill in the blanks with an appropriate conjunction. 1) Could you email me                      you receive the offer? 2) I want to buy it                      it is expensive or not. 3) Don’t do that                      I allow it. 4)                     you are confident with it, you should go for it. 5) I didn’t enrol this semester                      I could go backpacking in Europe. 6) My neighbor’s cat has been missing                      last Friday. 7)                     I own a house; I am required to pay property taxes.

Conjunctive Adverbs

Conjunctive adverbs are words that join independent clauses into one sentence. A conjunctive adverb helps you create a shorter sentence. When you use a conjunctive adverb, put a semicolon (;) before it and a comma (,) after it.  We have many different sizes of this shirt; however, it comes in only one color. Some examples of conjunctive adverbs are: accordingly, also, besides, consequently, finally, however, indeed, instead, likewise, meanwhile, moreover, nevertheless, next, otherwise, still, therefore, then, etc.  The due date for the final paper has passed; therefore, I could not submit mine on time. There are many history books; however, none of them may be accurate. It rained hard; moreover, lightening flashed and thunder boomed. The baby fell asleep; then, the doorbell rang. The law does not permit drinking and driving anytime; otherwise, there would be many more accidents. Conjunctive adverbs look like coordinating conjunctions (and, but, or, so, for, yet, nor); however, they are not as strong as coordinating conjunctions and they are punctuated differently. A conjunctive adverb is also used in a single main clause. In this case, a comma (,) is used to separate the conjunctive adverb from the sentence.  I woke up very late this morning. Nevertheless, I wasn’t late to school. She didn’t take a bus to work today. Instead, she drove her car. Jack wants a toy car for his birthday. Meanwhile, Jill wants a dollhouse for her birthday. They returned home. Likewise, I went home. [Quiz 27.1] Choose the right conjunctive adverb for the sentence. 1) Hurry up;                     , you will be late for the train. 2) I studied hard for the exam;                     , I failed. 3) Tom is a sportsman;                     , his brother Tom is athletic. 4) He didn’t go to college.                     , he started his own business. 5) He is not good-looking.                     , he is popular among girls.

Interjections

An interjection is a word that expresses some kind of emotion. It can be used as filler. Interjections do not have a grammatical function in the sentence and are not related to the other parts of the sentence. If an interjection is omitted, the sentence still makes sense. It can stand alone. Ouch! That hurts. Well, I need a break. Wow! What a beautiful dress! When you are expressing a strong emotion, use an exclamation mark (!). A comma (,) can be used for a weaker emotion. Interjections do the following: 1.Express a feeling—wow, gee, oops, darn, geez, oh: Oops, I’m sorry. That was my mistake. Geez! Do I need to do it again? Oh, I didn’t know that. 2.Say yes or no—yes, no, nope: Yes! I will do it! No, I am not going to go there. Nope. That’s not what I want. 3.Call attention—yo, hey: Yo, will you throw the ball back? Hey, I just wanted to talk to you about the previous incident. 4.Indicate a pause—well, um, hmm: Well, what I meant was nothing like that. Um, here is our proposal. Hmm. You really need to be on a diet. [Quiz 29.1] What should be B’s expression? A: I got a perfect score on the math exam. B:                      (Well. Wow! or Um.) [Quiz 29.2] What should be C’s expression? C:                     ! (Nope, Hey, or Geez) My computer just broke.

Capitalization

Capitalization means using a capital letter (for example, A instead of a). The use of capital letters helps readers read your writing without confusion. Always capitalize the following: The first word in a sentence. I grew up in India. She left a message on my phone. The pronoun I. This country is where I dreamed of. The first letter of a proper noun (specific name). David wants to play soccer with us. This letter is from Chang. I graduated from the University of New York. I like Coca-Cola. She likes Godiva chocolates. The first letter of months, days, and holidays (but not seasons). Today is June 8, 2011. Susie’s birthday is this Thursday. The shops are closed on Easter. This summer is going to be very hot. The first letter of nationalities, religions, races of people, and languages. We often eat Italian food. I want to master many languages, such as Spanish, Korean, Chinese, and Russian. There is one Christian church in my town. The first letter in a person’s title. This is Dr. Simon. I got it from Mr. Tom. Geographic areas: cities, states, countries, mountains, oceans, rivers, etc. My destination is Paris, France. Hawaii is in the middle of the Pacific Ocean. Historical periods. The Renaissance began in the 14th century. The Qing Dynasty is the last dynasty in China. The first letter of each major word in the title of a book, movie, article, etc. Tolstoy’s War and Peace is my favorite novel. I found the article “How to Write a Good Cover Letter” in this magazine. [Quiz 30.1] Correctly write each sentence using proper capitalization. 1) i was born in shanghai, china, but grew up in the united states. 2) mrs. ohana gave me the bible. 3) if you walk two more blocks, you will be able to see mt. rocky. 4) my family will have a summer vacation in hawaii. 5) I didn’t want to cook tonight, so I just ordered thai food for dinner.